Adapted from Wikipedia
History of Perfume
Egyptian scene depicting the preparation of Lily perfume
Etruscan perfume vase shaped like a female head
The word perfume used today derives from the Latin "per fumum", meaning through smoke. Perfumery, or the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt and was further refined by the Romans and Persians. Although perfume and perfumery also existed in India, much of its fragrances are incense based. The earliest distillation of Attar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita. The Harshacharita, written in 7th century A.D. in Northern India mentions use of fragrant agarwood oil.
The world's first recorded chemist is considered to be a woman named Tapputi, a perfume maker who was mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the second millennium BC in Mesopotamia. She distilled flowers, oil, and calamus with other aromatics then filtered and put them back in the still several times.
Recently, archaeologists have uncovered what are believed to be the world's oldest perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus.
The perfumes date back more than 4,000 years. The perfumes were
discovered in an ancient perfumery. At least 60 stills, mixing bowls,
funnels and perfume bottles were found in the 43,000-square-foot
(4,000 m2) factory.[3] In ancient times people used herbs and spices, like almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, bergamot, as well as flowers.[4]
The Arabian chemist, Al-Kindi (Alkindus), wrote in the 9th century a book on perfumes which he named Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations.
It contained more than a hundred recipes for fragrant oils, salves,
aromatic waters and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs. The book
also described 107 methods and recipes for perfume-making, and even the
perfume making equipment, like the alembic, still bears its Arabic name[5].
The Persian Muslim doctor and chemist Avicenna (also known as Ibn Sina) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, the procedure most commonly used today. He first experimented with the rose.
Until his discovery, liquid perfumes were mixtures of oil and crushed
herbs or petals, which made a strong blend. Rose water was more
delicate, and immediately became popular. Both of the raw ingredients
and distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery
and scientific developments, particularly chemistry.
Knowledge of perfumery came to Europe as early as the 14th century due partially to the spread of Islam. But it was the Hungarians
who ultimately introduced the first modern perfume. Made of scented
oils blended in an alcohol solution, the first modern perfume was made
in 1370 at the command of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary and was known throughout Europe as Hungary Water. The art of perfumery prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century, Italian refinements were taken to France by Catherine de' Medici's
personal perfumer, Rene le Florentin. His laboratory was connected with
her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulas could be
stolen en route. France
quickly became the European center of perfume and cosmetic manufacture.
Cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in
the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France.
During the Renaissance
period, perfumes were used primarily by the wealthy to mask body odors
resulting from infrequent bathing. Partly due to this patronage, the
western perfumery industry was created. By the 18th century, aromatic
plants were being grown in the Grasse region of France
to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today,
France remains the centre of the European perfume design and trade.
Concentration
Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which in fine fragrance is typically ethanol
or a mix of water and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in
the definitions of perfume types. The concentration by percent/volume
of perfume oil is as follows:
- Perfume extract (Extrait): 15-40% (IFRA: typical 20%) aromatic compounds
- Eau de Parfum (EdP), Parfum de Toilette (PdT): 10-20% (typical
~15%) aromatic compounds. Sometimes listed as "eau de perfume" or
"millésime".
- Eau de Toilette (EdT): 5-15% (typical ~10%) aromatic compounds
- Eau de Cologne (EdC): Chypre citrus type perfumes with 3-8% (typical ~5%) aromatic compounds
- Splash and After shave: 1-3% aromatic compounds
Perfume oil is necessarily diluted with a solvent because undiluted
oils (natural or synthetic) contain high concentrations of chemical
components (natural or otherwise) that will likely result in allergic
reactions and possibly injury when applied directly to skin or
clothing. As well, the scents in pure perfume oils are far too
concentrated to smell pleasant. By far the most common solvent for
perfume oil dilution is ethanol or a mixture of ethanol and water.
Perfume oil can also be diluted by means of neutral-smelling oils such
as fractionated coconut oil, or liquid waxes such as jojoba oil.
The intensity and longevity of a perfume is based on the
concentration, intensity and longevity of the aromatic compounds
(natural essential oils / perfume oils) used: As the percentage of
aromatic compounds increases, so does the intensity and longevity of
the scent created. Different perfumeries or perfume houses assign
different amounts of oils to each of their perfumes. Therefore,
although the oil concentration of a perfume in Eau de Parfum (EdP) dilution will necessarily be higher than the same perfume in Eau de Toilette
(EdT) from within the same range, the actual amounts can vary between
perfume houses. An EdT from one house may be stronger than an EdP from
another.
Men's fragrances are rarely as EdP or perfume extracts. As well,
women's fragrances are rarely sold in EdC concentrations. Although this
gender specific naming trend is common for assigning fragrance
concentrations, it does not directly have anything to do with whether a
fragrance was intended for men or women.
Furthermore, some fragrances with the same product name but having a different concentration name
may not only differ in their dilutions, but actually use different
perfume oil mixtures altogether. For instance, in order to make the EdT
version of a fragrance brighter and fresher than its EdP, the EdT oil
may be "tweaked" to contain slightly more top notes or fewer base
notes. In some cases, words such as "extrême", "intense" or "concentrée",
that might indicate aromatic concentration are sometimes completely
different fragrances that relates only because of a similar perfume accord. An example of this would be Chanel‘s Pour Monsieur and Pour Monsieur Concentrée.
Eau de Cologne (EdC) since 1706 in Cologne, Germany is originally a specific fragrance and trademark. However outside of Germany the term has become generic for Chypre citrus perfumes (without base-notes).
Describing a perfume
The precise formulae of commercial perfumes are kept secret.
Even if they were widely published, they would be dominated by such
complex ingredients and odorants that they would be of little use in
providing a guide to the general consumer in description of the experience
of a scent. Nonetheless, connoisseurs of perfume can become extremely
skillful at identifying components and origins of scents in the same
manner as wine experts [6].
The most practical way to start describing a perfume is according to the elements of the fragrance notes of the scent or the family
it belongs to, all of which affect the overall impression of a perfume
from first application to the last lingering hint of scent[7][8]
Fragrance notes
Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three sets of
'notes', making the harmonious scent accord. The notes unfold over
time, with the immediate impression of the top note leading to the
deeper middle notes, and the base notes gradually appearing as the
final stage. These notes are created carefully with knowledge of the
evaporation process of the perfume.
- Top notes: The scents that are perceived immediately on
application of a perfume. Top notes consist of small, light molecules
that evaporate quickly. They form a person's initial impression of a
perfume and thus are very important in the selling of a perfume. Also
called the head notes.
- Middle notes: The scent of a perfume that emerges just prior
to when the top notes dissipate. The middle note compounds form the
"heart" or main body of a perfume and act to mask the often unpleasant
initial impression of base notes, which become more pleasant with time.
They are also called the "heart notes".
- Base notes: The scent of a perfume that appears close to the
departure of the middle notes. The base and middle notes together are
the main theme of a perfume. Base notes bring depth and solidity to a
perfume. Compounds of this class of scents are typically rich and
"deep" and are usually not perceived until 30 minutes after application.
The scents in the top and middle notes are influenced by the base
notes, as well the scents of the base notes will be altered by the type
of fragrance materials used as middle notes. Manufacturers of perfumes
usually publish perfume notes and typically they present it as
fragrance pyramid, with the components listed in imaginative and
abstract terms.
Olfactive families
Grouping perfumes, like any taxonomy,
can never be a completely objective or final process. Many fragrances
contain aspects of different families. Even a perfume designated as
"single flower", however subtle, will have undertones of other
aromatics. "True" unitary scents can rarely be found in perfumes as it
requires the perfume to exist only as a singular aromatic material.
Classification by olfactive family is a starting point for a
description of a perfume, but it cannot by itself denote the specific
characteristic of that perfume.
Traditional
The traditional classification which emerged around 1900 comprised the following categories:
- Single Floral: Fragrances that are dominated by a scent from one particular flower; in French called a soliflore. (e.g. Serge Lutens' Sa Majeste La Rose, which is dominated by rose.)
- Floral Bouquet: Containing the combination of several flowers in a scent.
- Amber: A large fragrance class featuring the sweet slightly animalic scents of ambergris or labdanum, often combined with vanilla, flowers and woods. Can be enhanced by camphorous oils and incense resins, which bring to mind Victorian era imagery of the Middle East and Far East.
- Wood: Fragrances that are dominated by woody scents, typically of agarwood, sandalwood and cedar. Patchouli, with its camphoraceous smell, is commonly found in these perfumes.
- Leather: A family of fragrances which features the scents of honey, tobacco, wood and wood tars in its middle or base notes and a scent that alludes to leather.
- Chypre: Meaning Cyprus in French, this includes fragrances built on a similar accord consisting of bergamot, oakmoss, patchouli, and labdanum. This family of fragrances is named after a perfume by François Coty. A notable example is Mitsouko (a popular name for girls in Japanese) by Guerlain.
- Fougère: Meaning Fern in French, built on a base of lavender, coumarin and oakmoss. Houbigant's Fougère Royale
pioneered the use of this base. Many men's fragrances belong to this
family of fragrances, which is characterized by its sharp herbaceous
and woody scent.
Modern
Since 1945, due to great advances in the technology of perfume
creation (i.e., compound design and synthesis) as well as the natural
development of styles and tastes; new categories have emerged to
describe modern scents:
- Bright Floral: combining the traditional Single Floral & Floral Bouquet categories.
- Green: a lighter and more modern interpretation of the Chypre type, with pronounced cut grass and cucumber-like scents
- Aquatic, Oceanic, or Ozonic: the newest category in perfume history, appearing in 1991 with Christian Dior's Dune. A very clean, modern smell leading to many of the modern androgynous perfumes. Generally contains calone, a synthetic scent discovered in 1966. Also used to accent floral, oriental, and woody fragrances.
- Citrus: An old fragrance family that until recently
consisted mainly of "freshening" eau de colognes, due to the low
tenacity of citrus scents. Development of newer fragrance compounds has
allowed for the creation of primarily citrus fragrances.
- Fruity: featuring the aromas of fruits other than citrus, such as peach, cassis (black currant), mango, passion fruit, and others.
- Gourmand: scents with "edible" or "dessert"-like qualities. These often contain notes like vanilla, tonka bean and coumarin, as well as synthetic components designed to resemble food flavors. An example is Thierry Mugler's Angel.
Fragrance wheel
Fragrance Wheel perfume classification chart, ver. 1983
The Fragrance wheel is a relatively new classification method that
is widely used in retail and in the fragrance industry. The method was
created in 1983 by Michael Edwards, a consultant in the perfume
industry, who designed his own scheme of fragrance classification.The
new scheme was created in order to simplify fragrance classification
and naming scheme, as well as to show the relationships between each of
the individual classes[9].
The five standard families consist of Floral, Oriental, Woody, Fougère, and Fresh,
with the former four families being more "classic" while the latter
consisting of newer bright and clean smelling citrus and oceanic
fragrances that have arrived due to improvements in fragrance
technology. Each of the families are in turn divided into sub-groups
and arranged around a wheel.
Aromatics sources
Plant sources
Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma compounds. These aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection against herbivores, infections, as well as to attract pollinators.
Plants are by far the largest source of fragrant compounds used in
perfumery. The sources of these compounds may be derived from various
parts of a plant. A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics,
for instance the aerial portions and seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each other. Orange leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of petitgrain, neroli, and orange oils.
- Bark: Commonly used barks includes cinnamon and cascarilla. The fragrant oil in sassafras root bark is also used either directly or purified for its main constituent, safrole, which is used in the synthesis of other fragrant compounds such as helional.
- Flowers and blossoms: Undoubtedly the largest source of aromatics. Includes the flowers of several species of rose and jasmine, as well as osmanthus, plumeria, mimosa, tuberose, narcissus, scented geranium, cassie, ambrette as well as the blossoms of citrus and ylang-ylang trees. Although not traditionally thought of as a flower, the unopened flower buds of the clove are also commonly used. One orchid hybrid named "Miss Udorn Sunshine" is extracted for perfume.[10] Other orchid flowers are not commercially used to produce essential oils or absolutes, except in the case of vanilla, an orchid, which must be pollinated first and made into seed pods before use in perfumery.
- Fruits: Fresh fruits such as apples, strawberries, cherries
unfortunately do not yield the expected odors when extracted; if such
fragrance notes are found in a perfume, they are synthetic. Notable
exceptions include litsea cubeba, vanilla, and juniper berry. The most commonly used fruits yield their aromatics from the rind; they include citrus such as oranges, lemons, and limes. Although grapefruit
rind is still used for aromatics, more and more commercially used
grapefruit aromatics are artificially synthesized since the natural
aromatic contains sulfur and its degradation product is quite unpleasant in smell.
- Leaves and twigs: Commonly used for perfumery are lavender leaf, patchouli, sage, violets, rosemary, and citrus leaves. Sometimes leaves are valued for the "green" smell they bring to perfumes, examples of this include hay and tomato leaf.
- Resins: Valued since antiquity, resins have been widely used in incense
and perfumery. Highly fragrant and antiseptic resins and
resin-containing perfumes have been used by many cultures as medicines
for a large variety of ailments. Commonly used resins in perfumery
include labdanum, frankincense/olibanum, myrrh, Peru balsam, gum benzoin. Pine and fir resins are a particularly valued source of terpenes used in the organic synthesis of many other synthetic or naturally occurring aromatic compounds. Some of what is called amber and copal in perfumery today is the resinous secretion of fossil conifers.
- Roots, rhizomes and bulbs: Commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery include iris rhizomes, vetiver roots, various rhizomes of the ginger family.
- Seeds: Commonly used seeds include tonka bean, carrot seed, coriander, caraway, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, and anise.
- Woods:
Highly important in providing the base notes to a perfume, wood oils
and distillates are indispensable in perfumery. Commonly used woods
include sandalwood, rosewood, agarwood, birch, cedar, juniper, and pine. These are used in the form of macerations or dry-distilled (rectified) forms.
Animal sources
- Ambergris: Lumps of oxidized fatty compounds, whose precursors were secreted and expelled by the Sperm Whale. Ambergris is commonly referred to as "amber" in perfumery and should not be confused with yellow amber, which is used in jewelry.
- Castoreum: Obtained from the odorous sacs of the North American beaver.
- Civet: Also called Civet Musk, this is obtained from the odorous sacs of the civets, animals in the family Viverridae, related to the Mongoose. The World Society for the Protection of Animals investigated African civets caught for this purpose.[11]
- Hyraceum: Commonly known as "Africa Stone," is the petrified excrement of the Rock Hyrax.[12]
- Honeycomb: From the honeycomb of the Honeybee.
Both beeswax and honey can be solvent extracted to produce an absolute.
Beeswax is extracted with ethanol and the ethanol evaporated to produce
beeswax absolute.
- Musk: Originally derived from the musk sacs from the Asian musk deer, it has now been replaced by the use of synthetic musks which usually are called “white musk”.
Other natural sources
- Lichens: Commonly used lichens include oakmoss and treemoss thalli.
- "Seaweed": Distillates are sometimes used as essential oil in perfumes. An example of a commonly used seaweed is Fucus vesiculosus,
which is commonly referred to as bladder wrack. Natural seaweed
fragrances are rarely used due to their higher cost and lower potency
than synthetics.
Synthetic sources
Main article: Aroma compound
Many modern perfumes contain synthesized odorants. Synthetics can provide fragrances which are not found in nature. For instance, Calone,
a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic marine
scent that is widely used in contemporary perfumes. Synthetic aromatics
are often used as an alternate source of compounds that are not easily
obtained from natural sources. For example, linalool and coumarin are both naturally occurring compounds that can be inexpensively synthesized from terpenes. Orchid scents (typically salicylates)
are usually not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead
synthetically created to match the fragrant compounds found in various
orchids.
The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few companies. They include:
Each of these companies patents several processes for the production of aromatic synthetics annually.
Characteristics
Natural and synthetics are used for their different odor characteristics in perfumery
|
Naturals |
Synthetics |
| Variance |
Vary by the times and locations where they are harvested. It's much
more difficult to produce consistent products with equivalent odor over
years of harvest. As such, the perfumer has to "manually" balance-out
the natural variations of the ingredients in order to maintain the
quality of the perfume. |
Much more consistent than natural aromatics. However, differences
in organic synthesis may result in minute differences in concentration
of impurities. If these impurities have low smell (detection)
thresholds, the differences in the scent of the synthetic aromatic will
be significant. |
| Components |
Thousands of chemical compounds. |
Depending on purity, consists primarily of one chemical compound. |
| Scent Uniqueness |
Bears a somewhat similar scent to its originating material, depending on the extraction method. |
Similar to natural scents if the compounds are the same. Novel
scent compounds not mimicking natural compounds however, bear little
scent likeness to natural materials. |
| Scent Complexity |
Deep and complex fragrance notes. Softer with subtle scent nuances. |
Pure and pronounced fragrance notes. Structural and defined. |
| Price |
Perfume composed of largely natural materials are usually much more expensive. |
Perfumes using largely synthetic aromatics can be available at
widely-affordable prices. However, synthetic aromatics and perfumes are
not necessarily cheaper than naturals. Some synthetics can be more
costly than most natural ingredients due to various factors such as the
complexity of systhesis or extraction procedure. |
Obtaining natural odorants
Before perfumes can be composed, the odorants used in various
perfume compositions must first be obtained. Synthetic odorants are
produced through organic synthesis
and purified. Odorants from natural sources require the use of various
methods to extract the aromatics from the raw materials. The results of
the extraction are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or
butters, depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product. [13]
All these techniques will, to a certain extent, distort the odor of
the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials. This is due to
the use of heat, harsh solvents, or through exposure to oxygen in the
extraction process which will denature the aromatic compounds, which
either change their odor character or renders them odorless.
- Maceration/Solvent extraction:
The most used and economically important technique for extracting
aromatics in the modern perfume industry. Raw materials are submerged
in a solvent that can dissolve the desired aromatic compounds. Maceration
lasts anywhere from hours to months. Fragrant compounds for woody and
fibrous plant materials are often obtained in this manner as are all
aromatics from animal sources. The technique can also be used to
extract odorants that are too volatile for distillation or easily denatured by heat. Commonly used solvents for maceration/solvent extraction include hexane, and dimethyl ether. The product of this process is called a "concrete".
- Supercritical fluid extraction: A relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds from a raw material, which often employs Supercritical CO2.
Due to the low heat of process and the relatively nonreactive solvent
used in the extraction, the fragrant compounds derived often closely
resemble the original odor of the raw material.
- Ethanol extraction: A type of solvent extraction used to
extract fragrant compounds directly from dry raw materials, as well as
the impure oily compounds materials resulting from solvent extraction
or enfleurage. Ethanol extraction is not used to extract fragrance from
fresh plant materials since these contain large quantities of water,
which will also be extracted into the ethanol.
- Distillation: A common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds from plants, such as orange blossoms and roses. The raw material is heated and the fragrant compounds are re-collected through condensation of the distilled vapour.
- Steam distillation: Steam from boiling water is passed
through the raw material, which drives out their volatile fragrant
compounds. The condensate from distillation are settled in a Florentine flask.
This allows for the easy separation of the fragrant oils from the
water. The water collected from the condensate, which retains some of
the fragrant compounds and oils from the raw material is called hydrosol and sometimes sold. This is most commonly used for fresh plant materials such as flowers, leaves, and stems.
- Dry/destructive distillation: The raw materials are directly
heated in a still without a carrier solvent such as water. Fragrant
compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat
often undergo anhydrous pyrolysis,
which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds, and
thus different fragrant notes. This method is used to obtain fragrant
compounds from fossil amber and fragrant woods where an intentional "burned" or "toasted" odor is desired.
- Fractionation: Through the use of a fractionation column,
different fractions distilled from a material can be selectively
excluded to modify the scent of the final product. Although the product
is more expensive, this is sometimes performed to remove unpleasant or
undesirable scents of a material and affords the perfumer more control
over their composition process.
- Expression:
Raw material is squeezed or compressed and the oils are collected. Of
all raw materials, only the fragrant oils from the peels of fruits in
the citrus family are extracted in this manner since the oil is present
in large enough quantities as to make this extraction method
economically feasible.
- Enfleurage: Absorption of aroma materials into solid fat or wax and then extracting the odorous oil with ethyl alcohol. Extraction by enfleurage was commonly used when distillation was not possible because some fragrant compounds denature
through high heat. This technique is not commonly used in the present
day industry due to its prohibitive cost and the existence of more
efficient and effective extraction methods. [7]
Fragrant extracts
Although fragrant extracts are known to the general public as the generic term "essential oils",
a more specific language is used in the fragrance industry to describe
the source, purity, and technique used to obtain a particular fragrant
extract.
Of these extracts, only absolutes, essential oils, and tinctures are directly used to formulate perfumes.
- Absolute: Fragrant materials that are purified from a pommade or concrete by soaking them in ethanol. By using a slightly hydrophilic
compound such as ethanol, most of the fragrant compounds from the waxy
source materials can be extracted without dissolving any of the
fragrantless waxy molecules. Absolutes are usually found in the form of
an oily liquid.
- Concrete: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from raw materials through solvent extraction using volatile hydrocarbons. Concretes usually contain a large amount of wax due to the ease in which the solvents dissolve various hydrophobic
compounds. As such concretes are usually further purified through
distillation or ethanol based solvent extraction. Concretes are
typically either waxy or resinous solids or thick oily liquids.
- Essential oil: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from a source material directly through distillation or expression and obtained in the form of an oily liquid. Oils extracted through expression are sometimes called expression oils.
- Pomade: A fragrant mass of solid fat created from the enfleurage
process, in which odorous compounds in raw materials are adsorbed into
animal fats. Pommades are found in the form of an oily and sticky solid.
- Tincture: Fragrant materials produced by directly soaking and infusing raw materials in ethanol. Tinctures are typically thin liquids. [7]
Products from different extraction methods are known under different
names even though their starting materials are the same. For instance,
orange blossoms from Citrus aurantium
that have undergone solvent extraction produces "orange blossom
absolute" but that which have been steam distilled is known as "neroli
oil".
Composing perfumes
Perfume compositions are an important part of many industries ranging from the luxury goods
sectors, food services industries, to manufacturers of various
household chemicals. The purpose of using perfume or fragrance
compositions in these industries is to affect customers through their sense of smell
and entice them into purchasing the perfume or perfumed product. As
such there is significant interest in producing a perfume formulation
that people will find aesthetically pleasing.
The perfumer
The job of composing perfumes that will sell is left up to an expert
on perfume composition or known in the fragrance industry as the perfumer. They are also sometimes referred to affectionately as a "Nez" (French for nose) due to their fine sense of smell and skill in smell composition.
The composition of a perfume typically begins with a brief by
the perfumer's employer or an outside customer. The customers to the
perfumer or their employers, are typically fashion houses or large corporations
of various industries. The perfumer will then go through the process of
blending multiple perfume mixtures and sell the formulation to the
customer, often with modifications of the composition of the perfume.
The perfume composition will then be either used to enhance another product as a functional fragrance (shampoos, make-up, detergents, car interiors, etc.), or marketed and sold directly to the public as a fine fragrance.[6]
Technique
Paper blotters are commonly used by perfumers to sample and smell perfumes and odorants.
Although there is no single "correct" technique for the formulation
of a perfume, there are general guidelines as to how a perfume can be
constructed from a concept. Although many ingredients do not contribute
to the smell of a perfume, many perfumes include colorants and
anti-oxidants to improve the marketability and shelf life of the
perfume, respectively.
Basic framework
A bottle of men's fragrance
Perfume oils usually contain tens to hundreds of ingredients and
these are typically organized in a perfume for the specific role they
will play. These ingredients can be roughly grouped into four groups:
- Primary scents: Can consist of one or a few main ingredients
for a certain concept, such as "rose". Alternatively, multiple
ingredients can be used together to create an "abstract" primary scent
that does not bear a resemblance to a natural ingredient. For instance,
jasmine and rose scents are commonly blends for abstract floral
fragrances. Cola flavourant is a good example of an abstract primary scent.
- Modifiers: These ingredients alter the primary scent to give the perfume a certain desired character: for instance, fruit esters may be included in a floral primary to create a fruity floral; calone and citrus scents can be added to create a "fresher" floral. The cherry scent in cherry cola can be considered a modifier.
- Blenders: A large group of ingredients that smooth out the
transitions of a perfume between different "layers" or bases. Common
blending ingredients include linalool and hydroxycitronellal.
- Fixatives: Used to support the primary scent by bolstering it. Many resins and wood scents, and amber bases are used as fixatives.
The top, middle, and base notes of a fragrance may have separate
primary scents and supporting ingredients. The perfume's fragrance oils
are then blended with ethyl alcohol
and water, aged in tanks for several weeks and filtered through
processing equipment to, respectively allow the perfume ingredients in
the mixture to stabilize and to remove any sediment and particles
before the solution can be filled into the perfume bottles[14].
Fragrance bases
Instead of building a perfume from "ground up", many modern perfumes and colognes are made using fragrance bases or simply bases.
Each base is essentially modular perfume that is blended from essential
oils and aromatic chemicals, and formulated with a simple concept such
as "fresh cut grass" or "juicy sour apple". Many of Guerlain's Aqua Allegoria line, with their simple fragrance concepts, are good examples of what perfume fragrance bases are like.
The effort used in developing bases by fragrance companies or
individual perfumers may equal that of a marketed perfume, since they
are useful in that they are reusable. On top of its reusability, the
benefit in using bases for construction are quite numerous:
- Ingredients with "difficult" or "overpowering" scents that are
tailored into a blended base may be more easily incorporated into a
work of perfume
- A base may be better scent approximations of a certain thing than
the extract of the thing itself. For example, a base made to embody the
scent for "fresh dewy rose" might be a better approximation for the
scent concept of a rose after rain than plain rose oil. Flowers whose scents cannot be extracted, such as gardenia or hyacinth, are composed as bases from data derived from headspace technology.
- A perfumer can quickly rough out a concept from a brief by cobbling
together multiple bases, then present it for feedback. Smoothing out
the "edges" of the perfume can be done after a positive response.
Reverse engineering
Creating perfumes through reverse engineering with analytical techniques such as GC/MS
can reveal the "general" formula for any particular perfume. The
difficulty of GC/MS analysis arises due to the complexity of a
perfume's ingredients. This is particularly due to the presence of
natural essential oils and other ingredients consisting of complex
chemical mixtures. However, "anyone armed with good GC/MS equipment and
experienced in using this equipment can today, within days, find out a
great deal about the formulation of any perfume... customers and
competitors can analyze most perfumes more or less precisely."[15]
Antique or badly preserved perfumes undergoing this analysis can
also be difficult due to the numerous degradation by-products and
impurities that may have resulted from breakdown of the odorous
compounds. Ingredients and compounds can usually be ruled out or
identified using gas chromatograph (GC) smellers, which allow
individual chemical components to be identified both through their physical properties
and their scent. Reverse engineering of best-selling perfumes in the
market is a very common practice in the fragrance industry due to the
relative simplicity of operating GC equipment, the pressure to produce
marketable fragrances, and the highly lucrative nature of the perfume
market.[14]
Health and environmental issues
Perfume ingredients, regardless of natural or synthetic origins, may
all cause health or environmental problems when used or abused in
substantial quantities. Although the areas are under active research,
much remains to be learned about the effects of fragrance on human
health and the environment.
Health
Immunological
Evidence in peer-reviewed journals shows that some fragrances can
cause asthmatic reactions in some individuals, especially those with
more severe and/or atopic asthma. Many fragrance ingredients can also cause headaches, allergic skin reactions or nausea.
In some cases, an excessive use of perfumes may cause allergic reactions of the skin. For instance, acetophenone, ethyl acetate and acetone while present in many perfumes, are also known or potential respiratory allergens.
Nevertheless this may be misleading, since the harm presented by many
of these chemicals (either natural or synthetic) is dependent on
environmental conditions and their concentrations in a perfume. For
instance, linalool, which is listed as an irritant, causes skin
irritation when it degrades to peroxides, however the use of
antioxidants in perfumes or reduction in concentrations can prevent
this.
Some research on natural aromatics have shown that many contain compounds that cause skin irritation[21]. However some studies, such as IFRA's research claim that opoponax is too dangerous to be used in perfumery, still lack scientific consensus [22]. It is also true that sometimes inhalation alone can cause skin irritation.
Carcinogenicity
There is scientific evidence that some common ingredients, like
certain synthetic musks, can disrupt the balance of hormones in the human body (endocrine disruption)[23] [24]
and even cause cancer (nitro-musks). Some natural aromatics, such as
oakmoss absolutes, contain allergens and carcinogenic compounds [21] [25].
Environmental
Pollution
Synthetic musks are pleasant in smell and relatively inexpensive, as
such they are often employed in large quantities to cover the
unpleasant scent of laundry detergents and many personal cleaning
products. Due to their large scale use, several types of synthetic
musks have been found in human fat and milk[26], as well as in the sediments and waters of the Great Lakes [27]
These pollutants may pose additional health and environmental problems when they enter human and animal diets.
Species endangerment
The demands for aromatic materials like sandalwood, agarwood, musk
has led to the endangerment of these species as well as illegal
trafficking and harvesting.
Safety regulation
The perfume industry in the US is not directly regulated by the FDA,
instead the FDA controls the safety of perfumes through their
ingredients and require that they be tested to the extent that they are
Generally recognized as safe
(GRAS). Due to the need for protection of trade secrets, companies
rarely give the full listing of ingredients regardless of their effects
on health. In Europe, as from 11 March 2005, the mandatory listing of a
set of 26 recognized fragrance allergens was enforced.[28]
The requirement to list these materials is dependant on the intended
use of the final product. The limits above which the allegens are
required to be declared are 0.001% for products intended to remain on
the skin,and 0.01% for those intended to be rinsed off. This has
resulted in many old perfumes like chypres and fougeres classes, which require the use of oakmoss extract, being reformulated.
Preserving perfume
Fragrance compounds in perfumes will degrade or break down if improperly stored in the presence of:
Proper preservation of perfumes involve keeping them away from
sources of heat and storing them where they will not be exposed to
light. An opened bottle will keep its aroma intact for several years,
as long as it is well stored.[6]
However the presence of oxygen in the head space of the bottle and
environmental factors will in the long run alter the smell of the
fragrance.
Perfumes are best preserved when kept in light-tight aluminium
bottles or in their original packaging when not in use, and
refrigerated to relatively low temperatures: between 3-7 degrees
Celsius (37-45 degrees Fahrenheit). Although it is difficult to
completely remove oxygen from the headspace of a stored flask of
fragrance, opting for spray dispensers instead of rollers and "open"
bottles will minimize oxygen exposure. Sprays also have the advantage
of isolating fragrance inside a bottle and preventing it from mixing
with dust, skin, and detritus, which would degrade and alter the
quality of a perfume.
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